Self discrepancy theory. Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self 2022-10-15
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Self-discrepancy theory is a psychological theory that explains how people's self-concepts influence their emotional responses to events. The theory was developed by social psychologist Dr. Edward Tory Higgins in the 1980s.
According to self-discrepancy theory, people have multiple selves or self-concepts that they use to represent themselves to themselves and to others. These selves can be thought of as mental models or schemas that people use to categorize and make sense of their experiences. The main selves that Higgins identified are the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self.
The actual self is a person's perception of their current abilities, characteristics, and behaviors. It is based on a person's past experiences and reflects how they see themselves in the present.
The ideal self is a person's conception of their ideal or desired self. It represents the traits and behaviors that a person wishes they had or aspire to have.
The ought self is a person's sense of what they should or ought to be like. It represents the expectations and standards that others have for them or that they have internalized from society or their own values.
Self-discrepancy theory proposes that when there is a discrepancy or gap between these selves, it can lead to negative emotions such as disappointment, sadness, or shame. For example, if a person's actual self does not match their ideal self, they may feel a sense of failure or disappointment. If their actual self does not match their ought self, they may feel a sense of guilt or shame.
On the other hand, when there is congruence or alignment between these selves, it can lead to positive emotions such as pride, satisfaction, and happiness.
Self-discrepancy theory has been supported by a large body of research and has been found to be a useful framework for understanding how people's self-concepts influence their emotional responses to events. It has also been applied to a wide range of topics, including motivation, self-regulation, and social comparison.
Overall, self-discrepancy theory highlights the importance of people's self-concepts in shaping their emotional experiences and underscores the role that self-awareness and self-regulation play in promoting well-being.
What's Your "Ought Self" Like?
Decisional and behavioral procrastination: How they relate to self-discrepancies. Discrepancy between these self-guides is characterized by dejection-related emotions such as disappointment and dissatisfaction. Throughout their life, individuals also learn the achievements and aspirations they must realize to secure rewards, such as love and approval. This affect is differentiated by the type of self-guide being used in comparison. Indeed, Chatard and Selimbegovic 2011 confirmed that, after individuals recognize they cannot fulfill some standard, thoughts about suicide are more accessible. Implications of discrepancies According to a variety of theories, discrepancies between the existing traits, status, or possessions of individuals and some standard evokes negative affective states, such as agitation or dejection. When do self-discrepancies have specific relations to emotions? While interactions we have with individuals and groups are definitely important to consider, we must also note the influence that larger, more systemic forces have on our self-perception.
Influences on the Self We have already learned that other people influence our self-concept and self- esteem. Self-discrepancies in clinically anxious and depressed university students. Finally, participants completed a word completion task. The ideal self-regulatory system focuses on the presence or absence of positive outcomes e. The relationship between income and subjective well-being: Relative or absolute? The ought self-regulatory system focuses on the presence or absence of negative outcomes e.
Undesired self, in contrast, is often derived from experiences in which social roles were disrupted or precluded in some way. Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Study 2 was similar to Study 1, but was conducted in Switzerland and Cote d'Ivoire. Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality-social, clinical, and health psychology. These were then mapped as a vertical scale on which participants marked where their actual, ideal, and possible selves fall on each line. Researches believed that there was no way to tie a unique emotional discomfort to one internal discrepancy, but rather that various internal discrepancies result in a variety of discomforts. As predicted, when individuals reflected upon the prospect of failure, they later recognized more words that relate to suicide, like hang--especially if self consciousness and escape motivations were elevated.
Discrepancies between undesired and actual selves were positively, and strongly, associated with life satisfaction. Interestingly, in Switzerland, relative to Cote d'Ivoire, failure was especially likely to evoke thoughts about suicide. Praise is a form of extrinsic reward, and if there is an actual reward associated with the praise, like money or special recognition, some people speculate that intrinsic motivation will suffer. Evidence As evidence of self discrepancy theory, Higgins, Shah, and Friedman 1997 , accumulated evidence that vindicates self discrepancy theory. For example, if your parents think you should follow in their footsteps and take over the family business, but your actual self wants to go into the military, then you may be unsure of what to do and fear being isolated from the family. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Self-discrepancies in clinically anxious and depressed university students.
Self Discrepancy Theory Self discrepancy theory was introduced by psychologist E. Magnitude and accessibility of self-discrepancies moderate emotional effects. The magnitude of discrepancy is related to the experience of negative affect such that the greater the discrepancy, the greater the negative affect. Their Findings The scores on the procrastination measure were used to group the participants into high and low procrastination groups. This self-regulation occurs through a discrepancy-reducing feedback process in which individuals exert changes on their behavior in response to a noticed discrepancy. In Study 3, some participants, all residents of Switzerland, were informed that 90% of Swiss citizens were satisfied with their life.
As Michalos 1985 showed, these three discrepancies--social comparison, past comparison, and desire--explained approximately 50% of the variance in happiness and satisfaction. Specifically, discrepancies between the ideal and actual self seem to predict depression but discrepancies between the ought and actual self predict both anxiety and depression. Individual Differences Research, 5, 115-123. From young children to older adults, people are becoming more aware of and oftentimes unhappy with their bodies, which results in a variety of self- perception problems. Describe the typical woman that is portrayed in the media. Michelle Sherrill Self-esteem , Self-Esteem Self-esteem is a concept that has been used to explain a vast array of emotional, motivational, and behavioral phenomena.
This was followed by sorts for the ought self and the undesired self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75 1 , 256-268. Furthermore, characteristics or conditions that amplify the awareness of individuals about themselves--in essence, magnifying the self--tend to increase the salience of these suicidal thoughts. However, some researchers doubted the effectiveness of the Selves Questionnaire, so they developed alternative means of measurement. Specifically, procrastinators had larger discrepancies between actual—and ought-selves as well as actual—and undesired-selves.
However, the model fitted well for each dimension separately. Specifically, if the feedback significantly dampened their mood, they become more inclined to practice extensively--but only if informed this practice might be effective. Sometimes we are intrinsically motivated, meaning we want to do something for the love of doing it or the resulting internal satisfaction. Their mood was also assessed both before and after the feedback. We have an overall feeling that we are not obtaining our desires and hopes, which leads to feelings of disappointment, dissatisfaction, and frustration. Australian Journal of Psychology, 57 3 , 139-147.
Researchers found evidence to support the long-term validity of the self-discrepancy personality construct along with anxiety and depression having a direct relationship with internal discrepancies. Timothy Strauman 1992 applied self discrepancy theory to psychological disorders of emotion. Psychological Review 94 3 : 319 —340. As Phillips and Silvia 2010 demonstrated, when several measures are introduced to control various limitations, self discrepancy theory is only partly supported. When participants reflected upon failure, suicide thoughts were more accessible and the need to smoke marijuana very soon was more pronounced.
In order to do so, the self-discrepancy must also be activated. Life satisfaction and happiness Vol. The findings displayed no evidence suggesting a direct tie between specific discomforts and type of internal discrepancy. First, individuals become aware of a major discrepancy between themselves and the standards they are expected to achieve, manifesting as a sense of failure or disappointment. Self-guides, Autobiographical Memory, and Anxiety and Dysphoria: Toward a Cognitive Model of Vulnerability to Emotional Distress. Social Indicators Research, 28, 195-223.
